Human Behavior And The Social Environment Philosophy Essay

Human Behavior And The Social Environment Philosophy Essay Skinner is a radical behaviorist and determinist who proposed that human behavior is controlled by objective observable factors such as environmental conditions and genetic factors. He suggested that human behavior can be classified into two types: respondents and operants. Respondents are behaviors that caused by environmental stimulus while operants are behaviors that act on the environment. He asserted that both respondents and operants are totally controlled by the environment. The main difference of these two kinds of behaviors is the nature of the control. Respondent is elicited by an environmental stimulus while operant occurs before the environmental stimulus. The environmental consequences which due to operants will control the behaviors that follows. There are three major ways that the environmental consequences can control behaviors: reinforcement, punishment and extinction. Inner State Skinner defined inner state such as feelings and emotions as a predisposition to act which means affecting the probability of occurrence in certain behaviors. He claimed that inner state is the effects of genetic make-up and personal experiences rather than the cause of behaviors. Thinking and Decision Making Skinner perceived thinking as a kind of behavior which is also affected by our own past experiences and through others instructions. A kind of thinking that Skinner mentioned is decision making which is closely related to making choices. Skinner asserted that free choices do not exist. Our past experiences, behaviors and behavioral consequences control the decisions or choices that we make. Freedom According to Skinner (1971), Freedom is a matter of contingencies of reinforcement, not of the feelings the contingencies generate (p. 38). He defined freedom as a behavioral process but nothing related to the state of mind. He believes that freedom can be partly experienced when we could avoid or escape from aversive elements of the environment. However, we still cant free ourselves from the environment. Self- Control Although Skinner emphasized that behaviors are entirely controlled, our determined behaviors can modify the physical and social environments which exert different effects on our behavior, thus controlling ourselves indirectly. He believed that the behavior which causes aversive consequences can be controlled by negative reinforcement such as avoiding or escaping from the situation in order to reduce the probability of being punished. The Perspective from Rogers Rogers took the humanistic phenomenology approach (Nye, p. 98) to understand human development. Self-Actualization Rogers believed that self-actualization, which includes personal growth and realization of basic potentialities, exists in human. He suggested that we should not set any absolute limit to the level of actualization as our full potential is always an unknown based on our present knowledge. Inner Human Experiencing To study human behavior, Roger emphasized the importance of inner human experiencing. This refers to evaluating ourselves subjectively such as our thoughts and feelings and trying to understand others empathetically. The Self Theory The subjective awareness of ourselves and the surrounding environment are the most important determinants of behaviors. The objective reality of the environment is not an important factor that determines behaviors. This means that the realistic self-concept develops a perception of the external reality and the circumstance in which we find ourselves, thus affecting behaviors. Unconditional Positive Regard Rogers suggested that positive regards are innate needs of humans, which include love, acceptance and respect. These needs are usually fulfilled by others who are in intimate relationships with us. Unconditional positive regards mean these needs can be fulfilled simply because we, as humans, are worthy. When these needs are not given unconditionally, especially in childhood, then there is a higher possibility for unfavorable characteristics to be developed. On the contrary, conditioned positive regards refer to regards that are only given when we meet others expectations. The key differences in viewing human development between Skinner and Rogers Views on Human Nature In Rogers approach, he assumed that we naturally have an actualizing tendency and are growth-motivated persons (Nye, p. 135). On the other hand, Skinner viewed humans as environmentally controlled persons (Nye, p. 135) who are being predisposed and manipulated since birth to become products of the environment. Views on Personality Development Regarding personality development, Skinner stressed that it depends primarily on the outcomes that our behaviors have. We all have different personalities which make us as unique persons because there are differences in our reinforcement histories. The stronger the history of positive reinforcement is, the more likely for us to well-develop a favorable personality. Differently, Roger believed that humans have the potential to maintain an ever-upward spiraling in development if we are exposed to unconditional positive regards. Views on Human Behavior Although Rogers admitted that there is an influence of the environment on human behaviors, he stressed that the subjective, inner feelings and experiences play the most significant role in determining behaviors. In contrast, Skinner insisted that our behaviors are merely controlled by genetic and environmental factors but not any of our inner states. He believed that we are controlled by the environment in three major ways: reinforcement, extinction and punishment. Views on Freedom When it comes to freedom, Rogers perceived it as something inner, subjective and existential. As long as the openness and responsiveness to the totality of our experiencing are developed within us, we could experience a sense of freedom and choose the way we behave. On the other hand, Skinner argued that freedom is nothing related to the state of mind. Humans are not free to decide our own fates but are determined by the environment. My commentary on Rogers and Skinner Perspectives I prefer Rogers over Skinner perspective on human development. I think that Skinner over-emphasized on behavior control which is dehumanizing and might indirectly mislead the society to treat persons as objects or machines which to be manipulated. I tried to imagine how my life would have become if Rogers perspective didnt ever existed and my personal beliefs were all based on Skinners approach. All of my behaviors and experiences were predetermined and being controlled which I did not have any choices at all. I couldnt experience the sense of satisfaction from what I endeavored to achieve since i would believe that favorable environment was the only reason which contributed to my success. It would be discouraging and my life would have less meaning. On the other hand, Rogers perspective makes me feel optimistic towards life by believing that the potential for growth and actualization reside within myself. Despite things are falling apart in times of adversity, I still live with hope and strongly believe that I am equipped with the power to overcome difficulties and live a better life in the future. Rogers perspective enhanced my self-understanding especially through the concept of unconditional positive regards. According to my own personal experiences, I strongly agree with Rogers that unconditional positive regards are prominent to the development of a healthy, fully functioning person. In my childhood, I had learnt that love and acceptance could only be gained with the condition that I was well-behaved, independent and expressed with favorable feelings and emotions. As a result, I have been experiencing psychological discomforts over the years with the feeling of being broken. I mean there is a large discrepancy between my actual and ideal self which Rogers called it as incongruence (Nye, 2000, p. 110). Moreover, I appreciated Rogers who had taken an inclusive approach to study human development which involves objective, subjective and empathic perspectives. He paid great attention to the inner state of human while at the same time didnt deny that the environment affects how we behave. All, in all, I think both perspectives have its interest to offer and undoubtedly allowed me to enhance self-understanding, the behaviors of others as well as the effects of the physical and social environment. Although the understanding of theories on human development is important, I believe that we should keep in mind not to overlook each individuals unique personality and experiences nor over-generalize individuals by imposing these theories on them.

September 11 Exposed the Weaknesses of a Complacent Superpower Essay

The unthinkable events of September 11 have called into question things that once seemed indisputable about America. The end of the Cold War brought with it notions of American supremacy economically, militarily, and in intelligence. The only challenge to this supremacy had been the Soviet Union, and its collapse ensured that the United States was safe to take its place as the world's only superpower. However, in the decade following the end of the Cold War, America has not been willing to accept the responsibility that accompanies this position. The weaknesses exposed by the attack all point to a need for America to abandon its perception of itself as invincible, because that attitude is precisely what made it so vulnerable. America needs to be willing to constantly reevaluate itself and question whether or not it is acting responsibly, as a superpower should. Â   What constitutes a superpower? This is a question that must be answered in order to determine where America stands after September 11. There is no question that America is the dominate force in the world both militarily and economically, and both of these factors play an important role in defining it as a superpower. However, these are two factors that are only relevant when looking at the whole world. Internal factors also play a role in defining a country as a superpower. First of all, the country must have a feeling of safety. People living in a superpower feel that they are untouchable and that as long as they stay under the security blanket that their government offers, no harm will come their way. In addition, the strong superpower will be held up by a strong infrastructure. Intelligence should be a top priority to ensure the safety of the people of the supe... ...g to join. Â   The events of September 11 have changed the America forever. Undoubtedly, the age of American innocence is over. However, the question remains: does the end of innocence mean the end of superpower status? The reevaluation of American hegemony is inevitable, but will this reevaluation signify the end of the hegemony? Undoubtedly, America dominates the world scene, even after the attack, but it must begin to understand better what it means to dominate this ever-changing world. America must never again sink into the complacency that had taken over in the past decade. It is only through constant reevaluation that America will ever truly understand the huge responsibility that accompanies being the world's lone superpower. Sources CNN, "Anthrax victim urges Americans to 'stand together,'" http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/11/05/anx.anthrax.facts/

Atlantic Revolution

Nationalism and revolution often go hand in hand. Yet, while nationalism might lead to revolution, and perhaps national independence, it is much broader than revolution, and one should not be confused with the other. â€Å"All nationalists believe that nations can be identified by certain characteristics that all its citizens hold in common. These characteristics include the linguistic, ethnic, religious, or historical traditions that make a nation distinctive. All nationalists†¦are linked across time by [a common] language, literary tradition, and history† (Gelvin 2011). Atlantic Revolution What the American Revolution had in common with the Atlantic Revolution is that it wasn’t one single event or conflict that lead to uprisings everywhere. They were interconnected sharing common political vocabulary and strong democratic character† Where the American Revolution sought to create a new republic the Atlantic republics wished to recreate a new society from scratch. The American Revolution started a Trans-Atlantic Age revolution. Discovery of the New World It all began with the discovery of the New World by Columbus is 1492, which happened on behalf of Castile which was the Spanish crown. Prior to this discovery Europe had switched from the Feudalist system to the Capitalist system. Nationalism in Europe fueled the desire to control colonies in Asia and Africa. Finding a new route to the orient was the goal, when the Americas were discovered. The â€Å"Atlantic revolution,† was the redirection of trade routes brought about by the great geographic discoveries. The Atlantic revolution, however, did not so much replace the old lines of medieval commerce as build upon them† (Britannica). The European merchant capitalism formed a framework that became a joint venture for Europe, Americas and Africa. One that was founded upon coerced labor in which all contributed to the vast complicated network known as the Atlantic economy. â€Å"While not equal in power, each was critical in the contribution to the construction of the Atlantic world†(Benjamin 2011). Atlantic World By 1607 the first English settlement in America was set in Jamestown Virginia. Only Seven out of Ten settlers remained in the New World, due to starvation, harsh living conditions and wars with the Natives. The natives who had traded food for death were fighting two enemies disease and setters. Diseases such as malaria, small pox, scarlet fever and influenza wiped the Natives out. Creating a shortage of labor in the creation of the New World. When Columbus first arrived, he brought Horses. These horses were traded to Native Americans which helped change the face of hunting forever. This allowed the Natives to move from hunting parties requiring several men that lasted days to one hunter on horseback. The New World gave the Old World tobacco, cocoa, beans, tomatoes, corn and potatoes. Both Corn and potatoes became the food of the poor after Europe came out of the epidemic known as Black Death. Although no cure for the countless diseases on both sides of the New and Old Worlds. The retreat of the plague left Europeans with only war, hunger and a raft of other infections to deal with. † Economy The Columbian Exchange brought the Europeans wealth and power. The combined animal and plant products from the Indies exceeded gold and silver in value. While it brought the native Americas an unequal exchange of food for diseases that caused entire Indian cultures to vanish. The Columbian Exchange brought the Africans to other countries; discovered by the Portuguese searching for gold, later kidnapped later to be bartered and sold into slavery to satisfy Europeans unquenchable taste for goods. While the Columbian exchange had life changing positive and disastrous ending negative effects on four continents and three branches of humanity. Ecology became destiny determining who would thrive and who would die. Tobacco John Rolfe was an entrepreneur, who dared to sail to the Americas. He landed in Chesapeake Bay, with a dream and some tobacco seeds. He planted them and a crop grew that was worth One Million United States currency of today. August 1619 the first permanent African involuntary labors arrived to care for the tobacco crops. Slavery did not exist at this point in time, Later another One Thousand settlers arrived with Twenty African indentured servants. â€Å"The black indentured servant, with his hope of freedom, was increasingly being replaced by the black slave. â€Å" In 1705, the Virginia General Assembly removed any lingering uncertainty about this terrible transformation; it made a declaration that would seal the fate of African Americans for generations to come†¦ â€Å"All servants imported and brought into the Country†¦ who were not Christians in their native Country†¦ hall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion†¦ shall be held to be real estate. If any slave resist his master†¦ correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction†¦ the master shall be free of all punishment†¦ as if such accident never happened. † (PBS) â€Å"The Body of Liberties, recognized the enslavement of Africans as not only legal but also moral in 1641† (Code Noir 2008). Slave Revolution When the first record of blacks arrived in US history it was in Virginia in 1619. The Colonists used words like, black skin and connoted words like â€Å"soiled, dirty†¦ horrible, wicked to describe the blacks, while white skin connoted â€Å"purity, beauty, and goodness. â€Å"About 1860 racism reared its ugly head when white settlers started referring to themselves as white. As time progressed, harsh, brutal treatment of the Negro, the African American, the Black, was based on the dehumanizing of this person, and asserting white supremacy. † (Sanders) Unable to swallow the idea that a black man could be their equal, the American White Anglo-Saxon took steps to make sure that equality just didn’t happen. As early as 1740 laws were passed that punished, by death, any act of rebellion Negro slaves committed or any act against a white person that resulted in grievous wounds, bruises, or maiming, without benefit of trial. French Colony of Saint Domingue The French had the slave system down to a science knowing that the average rate per slave was three years. This inevitable death sentence, sparked a revolution within the slaves themselves. The French Revolution sparked, the most famous revolution which began in the French colony of Saint Domingue later known as the country of Haiti. The Haitian revolution lasted for twelve years, under the leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture. The revolution took a turn when the slaves acquired guns from the neighboring Spanish and used them to fight off the British, French, and Spanish defeating 60,000 soldiers. The revolt caused Britain and France to abandon slave trade, making One Million black slaves French citizens in 1794. The French-Haitian Revolution What Nationalism and Revolution tell us about the role of slavery in the Atlantic World was what was done to justify slavery. In 1831 a Slave revolt lead by Nat Turner was used as reason to continue slavery. The whites were far outnumbered which was why The Haitian Revolution was kept quiet. For this reason, white Frenchmen were not permitted in Cuba for fear that they tell the story of the revolt in Haiti. One Million black slaves became French citizens in 1794 and when Napoleon tried to reinstitute slavery in 1802 things did not go well. Ultimately, Catholicism was used to try to de- Africanize the slaves, the colony wished to assimilate them culturally in order to continue their subjugation. American Revolution The American Revolution affected slavery by creating new ways for the slaves to be free. People started questioning slavery on all sides. The Americans won their independence from the British but the most vital area that America needed to address was the one of racial segregation. The primary cause of the civil war was slavery, and States’ rights. The Americans celebrated when the French overthrew its Absolutist monarchy. Sanctioned violence in France overflowed to the borders of Great Britain where they remained at war until 1815. Once the British war with France began depleting the British treasury. The war known as the French and Indian War is also known as the Seven Years War. The depletion of the treasury caused Britain, who decided the colonies had grown fat under their not so watchful eye to tax the Colonists on goods that had not previously been taxed. The Stamp Act of 1765, caused Parliament to take action, deciding that the colonies needed to contribute to their own defense. That action was followed by the British action to tax the Colonists on goods that had not previously been taxed. The final blow came when British forced the colonists to house and feed British soldiers. These collective actions made the colonists angry. The Colonists were without a representative in Parliament to peak for them. From these collective actions the phrase, no taxation without representation was born. Attempting to further cripple the colonists attempts for independence the English outlawed production of an American currency – and forced the colonies to borrow from British banks at high interest. John Adams stated that,† The revolution was effected before the war commenced. The revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people. † (Adams, 2010) Conclusion The American Revolution and Atlantic Revolution wasn’t one single event or conflict that lead to uprisings everywhere. They were interconnected sharing common political vocabulary and strong democratic character† While Nationalism and revolution often go hand in hand nationalism might lead to revolution, and perhaps national independence. Granted, â€Å"All nationalists believe that nations can be identified by certain characteristics that all its citizens hold in common. These characteristics include the linguistic, ethnic, religious, or historical traditions that make a nation distinctive. All nationalists†¦are linked across time by [a common] language, literary tradition, and history† (Gelvin 2011).

Euthanasia And Physician Assisted Suicide - 1249 Words

The world is unfortunately filled with unpleasant things like pain and suffering. As we have mentioned when talking about Hauerwas with similar ideas on different topics and situations, a lot of people have a hard time with not being able to be in control of their life and certain situations in it. They also need some type of purpose of meaning associated with their life. So when it comes to situations like incurable diseases or disorders, this can take a very large toll on them, and can almost make life seem as if it is not worth living anymore. As cruel as it might be, sometimes we as humans just can’t escape this feeling and at some point we have to accept that death is a part of life. I think that for some of those who have terminal illnesses, they view euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide not as murder or suicide, but rather a release from the pain that holds down and a quicker, less painful way to get to the end that will happen anyways. Euthanasia is becoming much more of a hot topic in the news, both here at home in the US, as well as on the global stage with the new Prime Minister of Canada pushing for a law that would allow nationwide physician assisted death. As of now only a few states have legalized physician-assisted suicide in the United States. These include Washington, Vermont, Oregon, New Mexico, Montana, and California. â€Å"Euthanasia, however, occurs secretly in all societies including those in which it is held to be immoral and illegal. The core ofShow MoreRelatedEuthanasia And Physician Assisted Suicide865 Words   |  4 Pagessubject for people; add in the idea of assisted suicides and there’s an uproar in society. Euthanasia or physician assisted suicide is a very controversial topic in our society today. Physician assisted suicide by definition is â€Å"suicide by a patient facilitated by means (as a drug prescription) or information (as an indication of a lethal dosage) provided by a physician aware of the patient’s intent (Merriam-Webster). There are two modes of looking at assisted suicides; either it’s seen as an absurd immoralRead MoreEuthanasia And Physician Assisted Suicide918 Words   |  4 Pagesallows terminally ill patients to end their lives with the assistance of a physician. According to the legislature, patients who seek assisted-death must only have s ix months to live and are required to submit a written request as well as two oral requests at least 15 days apart. (Reilly). While Gov. Jerry Brown still has yet to approve this new law, the act has shed light on the topic of euthanasia/physician-assisted suicide. With the pending status of the law, the question remains on whether or notRead MoreEuthanasia Or Physician Assisted Suicide961 Words   |  4 PagesEuthanasia or physician assisted suicide, is the painless killing of a patient, suffering from a painful or incurable disease, like cancer, or alzheimer s, the practice is illegal in most countries, including the United States, although in the United States, it is a state decision, the only state in the United States that it is legal in is Oregon. Oregon passed the Death with Dignity Act in 1994, making euthanasia legal for chronically ill patients, the only caveat is that the doctor is allowedRead MoreEuthanasia, And Physician Assisted Suicide863 Words   |  4 Pagesare: e uthanasia, and physician assisted suicide. Internationally, assisted suicide is a doctor prescribing drugs that end life. The patient is responsible for taking them. Euthanasia is the medication administered by doctors. Today, four countries have laws that allow euthanasia. (Ellis and Bronwyn) A few have laws for physician assisted suicide, and several countries have no laws against suicide. (Humphry) The United States of America have recently added a 5th state to offer assisted suicideRead MorePhysician Assisted Suicide And Euthanasia Essay1039 Words   |  5 PagesPhysician Assisted Suicide Is physician assisted suicide ethical? Physician assisted suicide is an up and coming ethical question that examines a person’s right to their own death. Many people support physician assisted suicide, citing that it can save a lot of pain and suffering. Others claim that the concept of physician assisted suicide is a slippery slope. A slippery slope in the sense that if society accepts euthanasia as a rightful death for the terminally ill, they will potentially acceptRead MoreEuthanasia And Physician Assisted Suicide1629 Words   |  7 Pagesproblems, assisted suicide creates options to reduce the amount of suffering the patient must enduring. Dying with dignity could be beneficial for not only the person who is dying, but also the person’s family and loved ones. This option, however, is often viewed as unethical and immoral throughout society. Physician-assisted suicide offers an option for those with health issues but poses various ethical and social issues. Assisted death is practiced in two different ways: euthanasia and physician-assistedRead MorePhysician Assisted Suicide And Euthanasia Essay1806 Words   |  8 PagesPuett WRIT 1401 12/06/16 Physician Assisted Suicide Beginning in the 1970s, terminally ill patients were given the right to refuse life-sustaining treatment to end their own life, a process commonly referred to as euthanasia. They would be taken off life support, and death would be allowed to take its natural course. This idea was controversial at first, but now a bigger issue has taken its place. Many patients claim that they reserve the right to physician assisted suicide—killing oneself with meansRead MoreEuthanasia And Physician Assisted Suicide997 Words   |  4 PagesEuthanasia and Physician Assisted Suicide: The Right to Die with Dignity (The Legalization, At Risk Groups, and Rebuttal) The possible legalization of voluntary euthanasia and physician assisted suicide brings concerns in regards to how well it will be accepted. There are contradictions that exists between government and church when it comes to the morals and values placed on human life. Although, society has concerns in regards to at risk community groups and the type of treatment availableRead MoreEuthanasia And Physician Assisted Suicide1504 Words   |  7 Pageslegalizing euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, we would provide â€Å"vulnerable† patients with better overall protection and health care, give patients (who are excruciatingly suffering and have no chance of recovery) the option to end their lives before they ever needed to go through such an ordeal and giving them peace of mind, and spare the families of the patients the emotional pain of watching their loved one slowly and painfully passing away. For these reasons, I believe that euthanasia and Physician-AssistedRead More Physician Assisted Suicide Or Euthanasia1597 Words   |  7 PagesPhysician assisted suicide or euthanasia should be a right granted to all citizens who are suffering from a degenerative, painful, or fatal condition that would cause them to be unable to enjoy their lives as healthy people do. The right to die with dignity is a fundamental issue that is debated in the spiritual side of everyone. Some of us may have known someone close to them who has seen or gone through an ordeal as watching someone take their last breath. No one should suffer in pain or have their